Europe: the path to citizenship has become longer. What changed in 2026 and what to choose now

In brief

• Portugal: the new nationality law has applied since 19 May 2026. The period for naturalisation is 10 years, or 7 years for nationals of EU and Portuguese-speaking countries. Applications filed earlier are decided under the old rules.
• Since 6 June 2026 Sweden has required 8 years of residence, an annual income of at least three income base amounts and a test on knowledge of society. There is no transitional period.
• Since 30 October 2025 Germany has abolished citizenship after 3 years. The 5-year period and dual citizenship remain.
• Malta closed citizenship by investment after the EU Court ruling of 29 April 2025. There are no longer any schemes granting the citizenship of an EU country for a predetermined sum.
• My conclusion: an EU passport is now an 8-10 year project, and its foundation is a residence permit that you obtain and keep without gaps. A second passport outside the EU solves a different task and does not replace European status.

What has changed: country by country

I will start with Portugal, because it is the most visible change of the year. Organic Law 1/2026 was published in the official gazette on 18 May 2026 and took effect the next day. Naturalisation now requires at least 7 years of legal residence for nationals of EU member states or Portuguese-speaking countries, and 10 years for everyone else. Previously it was 5 years for all. The law adds a test of the language, culture, history and national symbols, knowledge of a citizen's rights and duties, and a solemn declaration of adherence to the principles of the rule of law. Periods of residence can be added together, but they must fall within a window of 9 years for the first group and 12 years for the others. An important detail: applications filed before the law took effect are decided under the previous wording. How many cases are already in the queue is covered in our story on the citizenship backlog, and the naturalisation procedure itself is explained in our article on Portuguese citizenship.

Sweden has adopted its deepest citizenship reform in half a century. From 6 June 2026, according to the Migration Agency, the general residence period for adults rose from 5 to 8 years. A self-sufficiency requirement was introduced: an annual income of at least three income base amounts, about SEK 20,000 a month before tax, which must be long-term and come from employment or self-employment. Requirements for an orderly life were tightened, and applicants aged 16 to 66 must now show knowledge of Swedish and of Swedish society; the first test on society was launched in August 2026, and language tests will follow later. There are no transitional rules: all cases not decided before 6 June are assessed under the new requirements.

Germany has partly reversed its own 2024 reform. Back then the general period was cut from 8 to 5 years, and citizenship after 3 years was introduced for special integration achievements. On 30 October 2025, according to the German government, a law took effect that removed the 3-year option. The 5-year period remains, as does the possibility of keeping one's previous citizenship, but good German and the ability to support one's family are still required. There is no transitional period: applications already filed are decided under the new rules.

Finland took its step earlier: from 1 October 2024 the general period rose to 8 years, and with proven Finnish or Swedish language skills it is 5 years. Only residence with a permit counts, and days abroad are limited. Applications filed before 1 October 2024 are decided by the Finnish Immigration Service under the old rules.

What this means for you. The common line is the same: citizenship is granted for years actually lived, language and independent income, not for a formal period on a residence card. And almost everywhere the period has become longer, not shorter.

Italy and Malta: short routes are closed

Italy did not change the naturalisation period but citizenship by descent, which descendants of emigrants used for many years. Decree-Law 36/2025 of 28 March 2025, converted into Law 74/2025 from 24 May 2025, set the rule: a person born abroad who holds another citizenship is deemed never to have acquired Italian citizenship, unless a parent or grandparent held exclusively Italian citizenship or a parent lived in Italy for two consecutive years before the child was born. Applications filed by 23:59 on 27 March 2025 are decided under the previous rules. Italy's Constitutional Court upheld these provisions in judgment 63/2026, and in July 2026, by order 147/2026, referred the question of compatibility with EU law to the EU Court of Justice. The rules are explained in detail in our article on Italian citizenship by descent.

In parallel, the Chamber of Deputies is debating a naturalisation bill: a B1 Italian language certificate for everyone applying through marriage or residence, a closed list of grounds for refusal and a wider list of crimes for which citizenship is revoked. It is still a bill, the chamber has not voted, and the text must then pass the Senate; see our story on the B1 bill. The naturalisation period by residence for non-EU nationals remains unchanged at 10 years, and the procedure is described in our article on naturalisation in Italy.

Malta is the main symbol of change. On 29 April 2025 the EU Court of Justice, in case C-181/23, ruled that Malta's citizenship by direct investment scheme breached EU law: the nationality of a member state, and therefore EU citizenship, cannot be granted in exchange for predetermined payments. In July 2025 Malta amended its citizenship law: the investor programme was removed, and what remains is citizenship for exceptional merit, with no predetermined amount and an assessment of the real contribution and link with the country. Applications not approved by 29 April 2025 lapsed. More on the routes that remain is in our article on naturalisation in Malta. Cyprus closed its citizenship by investment programme back in 2020; see a separate article.

Cyprus has also reworked ordinary naturalisation. According to the Cypriot Ministry of the Interior, since December 2023 applicants need 12 months of continuous residence before applying plus at least 7 years in the preceding 10 years, Greek at B1 level and an exam on the basics of the country's political and social life. Periods are shorter for highly skilled employees of foreign-interest companies. How Cyprus handles citizenship-related disputes can be seen in our story on the registration of spouses.

What this means for you. Short routes are closing from two sides: the EU Court has banned the sale of citizenship, and national governments are removing fast-track and simplified grounds. One road remains: years of legal residence.

Why this is happening and what I think about it

I see three reasons. The first is political. Migration has become one of the main election issues in almost every EU country, and citizenship is the most obvious lever: it gives the right to vote and full access to the social system. It is easier for a government to raise the naturalisation period than, for example, to cut work visas, without which the economy cannot cope. That is why, as I wrote in my analysis on borders and residence permits, Europe willingly issues residence permits but is stricter about the next step.

The second reason is legal. The EU Court's ruling on Malta established the principle that citizenship rests on a genuine link between a person and the country, on solidarity and reciprocal rights and duties. The Court stressed that each country sets the conditions for citizenship, but must do so in compliance with EU law. National governments heard this signal more broadly than just about investment: a genuine link today is measured in years of life, language, income and taxes.

The third reason is queues. When there are more applications than an authority can handle, a long period also becomes a way to reduce the load. In Portugal the citizenship queue exceeded 690,000 cases as of 30 June 2026. The new law does not shorten that queue, but it will reduce the inflow of new applications in the coming years.

My assessment is simple: this is not a temporary wave that will roll back in two years. Germany has shown that even a recent liberalisation can be partly reversed. I do not expect a return to a 5-year period in Portugal or Sweden in the foreseeable future. Plans should be built around a long path.

What this means for your plan

The first consequence: an EU passport is now an 8-10 year project. If you obtain a residence permit in 2027, under ordinary naturalisation you can expect Portuguese citizenship no earlier than 2037, Italian citizenship by residence on roughly the same timeline, and German citizenship no earlier than after 5 years with fluent German and your own income. Add to this the processing time, which in several countries runs to years.

Second: a residence permit matters more than ever. It is what starts the clock, and a gap in it is what most often resets the clock. Renew your status on time, keep proof of residence and tax residency, and watch your days abroad. The route through permanent residence usually takes 5 years and gives a stable status in its own right, even if you never end up needing citizenship. How presence requirements work in different programmes is covered in our guide on presence requirements.

Third: a golden visa and citizenship are different goals. Investor residence programmes in Greece, Portugal, Italy, Malta, Cyprus and Hungary give the right to live in the country and travel freely in Schengen, but lead to citizenship only through real residence. If you rarely visit the country, a golden visa remains insurance and a right of entry, not a road to a passport. Where the programmes themselves are heading is in my analysis on residence without a passport and on golden visas in autumn 2026.

Fourth: watch the transitional rules. Portugal and Finland protected those who filed before the reform. Sweden and Germany applied the new rules to all undecided cases. Ireland's draft protects only applications already filed. The practical conclusion: as soon as you meet the period and the requirements, file at once, with a complete set of documents. A delayed application is the main risk in an era of reforms.

What this means for you. The period to citizenship now counts from the first day of legal residence and is easily lost through a gap. The most valuable thing you can do today is to start that clock and not interrupt it.

Which countries remain predictable

I judge predictability not by the length of the period but by three signs: the rules are written in law rather than in an authority's practice; reforms come with transitional provisions; and authorities decide cases within a reasonable time. By these signs the picture is as follows.

Portugal now requires many years, but the rules are clear and published, and filed applications are protected. The weak spot is processing times and the load on the migration and registry services; on renewing residence through the new portal, see our story, and on the golden visa queue, a separate story. Germany, after removing the 3-year option, has stabilised its rules at 5 years and kept dual citizenship, but the language and income requirements there are real. Italy has kept 10 years by residence for many years, but is changing the rules around it: language, grounds for refusal, revocation of citizenship.

Cyprus, after its 2023 reform, set out its requirements in detail and is preparing to join Schengen, as we reported in our story on Schengen for Cyprus. Ireland is still uncertain: the government has approved the scheme of a bill for 8 years, but the text has not yet been introduced to parliament; details are in our story on the 8-year period. Sweden is an example of rules being changed for everyone without a transitional period, and this is the main lesson for planning.

What this means for you. My forecast for 2027: several more countries will raise periods and add tests, but nobody will close naturalisation. Entry will become longer, not impossible.

A second passport outside the EU: what task it solves

Against the background of a long path into the EU, many people ask about a second passport outside the Union. Here it is important not to confuse the tasks. Citizenship by investment programmes in the Caribbean, such as St Kitts and Nevis or Grenada, and Vanuatu citizenship give a passport in months, not years. It helps with travel, banking and a fallback option for the family. But it does not give the right to live and work in the EU.

These programmes are also under EU pressure: the Union demands stricter vetting of applicants and monitors visa-free access. What exactly is happening and what to expect I analysed in my piece on Caribbean programmes under EU pressure, a comparison of destinations is in our article Vanuatu or the Caribbean, and the effect of a second passport on accounts is in our piece on second passports and banks. Why countries sell citizenship at all and why the EU no longer allows it at home is in my analysis on the sale of citizenship.

Here is how I see the right combination. If you need Europe to live in, the foundation is a European residence permit followed by permanent residence and, if you wish, citizenship. If you need mobility and a fallback option right now, a second passport outside the EU covers that task quickly while the long European clock runs. One does not replace the other, but they work well together. An overview of all routes to citizenship is in our citizenship guide.

What I advise now

First, decide on your goal: to live in the EU, to have a right of entry, or to obtain a passport. The country and programme depend on the goal. Second, start the clock as early as possible: in the base case, periods will not get shorter. Third, choose a country where you are genuinely ready to live for the required years, learn the language and pay taxes. Naturalisation without real residence barely works anywhere today.

Fourth, keep your documents as if you were applying for citizenship tomorrow: proof of address, entry and exit dates, tax returns, income certificates, language certificates. Fifth, file as soon as the conditions are met. Sixth, keep a parallel plan in mind: a residence permit for life in the EU and, if needed, a second passport outside the EU for mobility. For those living on passive income there are programmes for financially independent people.

What to watch in the coming months

First, Portugal's new regulation under the nationality law: it will clarify how periods are counted and knowledge is tested. Second, the vote on the Italian bill in the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate, and the EU Court of Justice's answer to the Italian Constitutional Court on citizenship by descent. Third, the fate of the Irish bill on 8 years. Fourth, the launch of language tests in Sweden.

We will track these decisions and update our assessment. If you want to calculate your own path to citizenship, book an online consultation; all BRIDGES services are on the home page.

How this article was prepared

Sources: Portugal's Organic Law 1/2026 of 18 May 2026 in the Portuguese official gazette; the Swedish Migration Agency's announcement of new citizenship rules from 6 June 2026; the German government's announcement that amendments to the nationality law took effect on 30 October 2025; announcements by the Finnish Immigration Service on the residence period from 1 October 2024; Italy's Decree-Law 36/2025 and Law 74/2025 as explained by the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Constitutional Court judgment 63/2026 and order 147/2026, and the page of bill AC 2124 on the Chamber of Deputies website; the EU Court of Justice judgment in case C-181/23 of 29 April 2025, Malta's citizenship law as amended in 2025 and the Maltese government's announcement of 16 July 2025; the Cypriot Ministry of the Interior's explanation of naturalisation; the Irish Department of Justice announcement on the bill scheme of 9 September 2026. Scenarios and likelihood assessments are my opinion, not a forecast by official bodies. This article does not replace a consultation.